Potential to be India's future powerhouse, said a news report, quoting the Department of Development of the North Eastern Region (DONER), prior to the Northeast Business Summit held in Mumbai in July 2002. The October 2001 Central Electricity Authority (CEA) 'Preliminary Ranking Study' of the nationwide potential of hydroelectric schemes gave the highest marks to the Brahmaputra river system. The study claims to have examined '10 major aspects, which play a vital role in the development of hydro projects'(1). The 168 schemes(2) considered by the ranking study have a cumulative installed capacity of 63,328 MW(3) and 149 of these were given ranks A and B, indicating high viability. These schemes will be developed by agencies such as the National Hydro Power Corporation (NHPC), North Eastern Electric Power Corporation (NEEPCO), the Brahmaputra Board and State Electricity Boards and a major portion of this power will be evacuated to other parts of the country. Other than these large projects, over 900 mini and micro hydel projects have been identified to meet the local needs of the northeast.(4)
Some of the schemes being planned for the region will be the largest hydro projects that India has ever seen and are to come up in one of its most ecologically-fragile areas. The pace with which these projects have advanced and the manner in which some of them have passed through official clearance procedures caught our attention and was instrumental in the compilation of this special issue of The Ecologist Asia on large dams in northeast India.(5)
Northeast India, consisting of the eight states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim,(6) is known for its biological and cultural DIVersity and the unique Brahmaputra river system. The region is home to over one hundred tribal communities and a large percentage of the population is dependent on traditional natural resource-based livelihoods. Its strategic location at the confluence of south, southeast and east Asia made it an important gateway between the peoples of the region. British annexation was the beginning of defined territorial boundaries as it became the frontier of the British Raj. The partition of the country in 1947 intensified the northeast's isolation. The creation of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) not only disrupted road and river communications with commercial centres in unDIVided Bengal and beyond, but also left the northeast hemmed in by a long chain of international borders. Today the 2,62,000 sq. km. region (including Sikkim) is linked to the Indian mainland through a slender 21 km. corridor through north Bengal.
While this enforced isolation may have, for decades, protected the region's bioDIVersity from the destructive large-scale development seen elsewhere in the country, it has also been one of the reasons for the northeast's economic and political neglect. Northeast India is marked by socio-political complexities, which include struggles for political autonomy and resulting armed conflicts. The Indian constitution has attempted to deal with the northeast's unique nature by having a system of administration that differs from the rest of the country. The sixth schedule and other constitutional provisions relevant to the northeast offer different degrees of autonomy and self-management (including natural resource management) to indigenous communities. Despite this, there seems to be little opportunity for participation in the planning of large developmental projects. Faced with a multitude of challenges, the region is currently charting a course for 'development' and large hydel projects for power export are a part of the development plan.The government and proponents of large dams in the region paint a win-win picture: exploiting the country's largest perennial water system to produce cheap, plentiful power for the nation, economic benefits through power export, employment generation, the end of militancy, flood control and little direct 'displacement' of local communities. Dams are made out to be the panacea for all the problems of the northeast. However, northeast India's unique characteristics and past lessons from large dams are enough reason to critically examine these promised benefits. A close look at some of the projects reveal planning based on inaccurate and inadequate information, legal violations by project authorities, lack of transparency and little scope for effective people's participation in decision-making. The articles in this issue raise some of these concerns and also give us a glimpse of the environmental characteristics of the region, the procedures involved in developing these large projects, experiences of local people and historical lessons concerning dams, from the northeast, the rest of the country and the world.
Based on its physiography and biological composition, the region can be broadly differentiated into the eastern Himalayas, northeast hills and the Brahmaputra plains. Its unique situation at the confluence of the Indo-Malayan, Indo-Chinese and Indian biogeographical regions, coupled with its physiography has generated a profusion of habitats, which harbour DIVerse biota with a high level of endemism (species found nowhere else). Northeast India is a part of the Indo-Myanmar bioDIVersity hotspot, one of 25 such hotspots in the world (Myers et al, 2000). Several articles in this issue describe the serious impacts on bioDIVersity due to dams (and other flood control devices) in the northeast: Boruah and Biswas on dam-related impacts on the fauna of the Brahmaputra, Kharbuli et al on dams in Meghalaya, Choudhury and Menon on the Kameng hydel project, Vagholikar and Ahmed on the Lower Subansiri dam and Singh on the Tipaimukh dam. Impacts on species such as the Gangetic dolphin and the sangai deer of Loktak are also emphasised. It is ironical and worrisome that in a critical bioDIVersity hotspot, one of the weakest links in environmental impact assessment studies(7) for the projects has been the bioDIVersity aspect.
The Brahmaputra river system, by far the largest in the northeast, is unique in many ways as Goswami and Das point out. It is distinguished by its glacial origins, location in a highly seismic zone, heavy and intense rainfall resulting in 'flashy' rivers, a high sedimentation rate and an intricate link with the ecology of the beels (wetlands) in the plains. This poses challenges to conventional dam building wisdom. Rudra takes a more detailed look at the Teesta sub-basin while Singh describes the Barak river system in his article on the Tipaimukh dam.
Picture: Firoz Ahmed
Talking of the geological set-up of Arunachal Pradesh, Valdiya says: "Owing to the extremely active geodynamic condition of the terrain, even the slightest tampering with the ecological-geological balance can initiate environmental changes, likely to assume alarming proportions eventually. There is an imperative need for extraordinary care when it comes to modifying topography by excavation, placing loads of water and sediments in river impoundments, changing groundwater circulation through road cutting, removing protective forest cover, etc." While expounding the features of a natural hazard preparedness programme, he emphasises the need for formulating appropriate codes for buildings and civil structures, especially high dams, which he terms 'critical structures' i.e. their "destruction or severe damage by a natural disaster would cause such extensive damage that it should not be built even if the chance of hazard is relatively small."
Dam engineers are quick to point out that a dam will survive a magnitude of 9 or 10 on the Richter scale, but even assuming that the actual structure is able to withstand a powerful tremor, quake-induced changes in the river system may have a serious impact on the viability of the project itself, as several basic paramaters vis-à-vis the regime of rivers and the morphology and behaviour of channels may change. The last two major earthquakes in the region (1897 and 1950) caused landslides on the hill slopes and led to the blockage of river courses, flash floods due to sudden bursting of landslide-induced temporary dams, raising of riverbeds due to heavy siltation, fissuring and sand venting, subsidence or elevation of existing river and lake bottoms and margins and the creation of new waterbodies and waterfalls due to faulting. Analysis of the available scientific data clearly indicates that the neotectonism of the Brahmaputra valley and its surrounding highlands in the eastern Himalayas has pronounced effects on the flooding, sediment transport and depositional characteristics of the river and its tributaries (Goswami and Das, 2002), which in turn has a bearing on the long-term viability of dams.
The calculation of sedimentation rates in the Brahmaputra system, essential for estimating the life of dams is yet another challenge. Goswami and Das point out: "Rates of bedload transport at Pandu, estimated by sediment discharge formulae, were found to be highly variable and seemingly unreasonable, except for the Laursen's equation which shows that the rate of bedload carriage at Pandu is within about 5-15% of the total load in the river. This demonstrates the kind of uncertainties involved in quantifying sedimentation processes, essential for designing hydraulic structures including dams and reservoirs." Given these inconsistencies, on what basis have sedimentation rates been calculated for dams in the Brahmaputra basin?
Another critical issue that has developed in recent years is the rapid recession of glaciers, which could have significant impacts on river regimes. Many of the rivers of the Brahmaputra basin have their origin in glaciers in the eastern Himalayas and are sustained by glacial melt, snowmelt run-off and monsoon rainfall. A 1999 study of the International Commission for Snow and Ice has warned that glaciers in the Himalaya are receding faster than in any other part of the world and, at present rates, are likely to disappear by 2035. This would lead to increased summer flows in some river systems for a few years, followed by a reduction as the glaciers disappear. The information on meltwater yield and its chemical and sediment characteristics is vital to the safety and maintenance of the hydroelectric installations and reservoirs in the Himalayas (Hasnain, 1996). In recent years, there have been no serious efforts to investigate the impact of Himalayan glaciers on the hydrological regime and climate in India.
High-altitude lakes formed as a result of glacial melt are potentially very dangerous. Moraine dams (created by debris accumulated by glacial action on mountain slopes and valley floors) holding back these waters are comparatively unstable and a sudden breach can lead to the discharge of huge volumes of water and debris. Such Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) cause catastrophic flooding downstream with serious damage to life, property, forests, farms and infrastructure – including dams. In recent years, GLOFs have impacted Nepal, India, Pakistan, Bhutan and China. Satellite imagery reveals evidence of GLOFs having occurred throughout the Himalayas (MDP, 2001). A major GLOF in August 1985 in Nepal caused extensive damage, destroying the Namche hydel project. Another in June 2000 damaged the Naphtha-Jhakri hydel project, under construction in Himachal Pradesh. Yet, shockingly, aspects dealing with glacial melt, GLOFs and associated risks, have not even found a mention in the risk assessments and EIA reports of dams being built in the eastern Himalayan region.
One of the arguments for large dams in the eastern Himalayas is as a flood-control measure. Widespread floods are an annual feature in the Brahmaputra basin, particularly in Assam, where they are caused by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors. The unique geo-environmental setting of the basin vis-à-vis the eastern Himalayas, the highly potent monsoon regime, weak geological formations, active seismicity, accelerated erosion, rapid channel aggradation, massive deforestation, intense land-use pressure and high population growth, especially in the floodplain belt and ad hoc temporary flood control measures are some of factors that cause and/or intensify floods in Assam, according to Goswami and Das. While scientific opinion on the desirability and efficacy of dams in flood-control is DIVided, there is an increasing consensus on the need to focus on flood management rather than flood control. As Kunda Dixit and Inam Ahmed (1998) say: "Complete flood control in the Himalayan watershed is impossible. Even partial control is an exercise that may be geopolitically, financially and (more importantly) technically problematic."
Flood-control embankments constructed in Assam have been responsible for the shrinkage of feeding and spawning grounds of many prized fish species and the disappearance of many spawn collection centres. A sharp decline in the catch of Indian Major Carps is a pointer to the loss of spawning grounds in the Brahmaputra system. The breaching of embankments has been a major cause for the intensification of the flood hazard in recent times. The undesirable consequences of embankments, especially in aiding channel aggradation and overbank flooding are clearly visible in Assam. Structural measures, mainly embankments, have so far been the sole answer to tackling floods. As a long-term strategy for resource utilisation and hazard management, a judicious mix of structural and non-structural measures with a greater emphasis on the latter should form the core of the watershed-based regional plan, say Goswami and Das. A.K. Das, in his article, emphasises the need to learn from the traditional wisdom of local people when dealing with floods.
The important issue of downstream ecological impacts on the rivers and the beels (wetlands) in the Brahmaputra plains due to proposed dams in the eastern Himalayas has got very little attention. The seasonal inundation of beels by rivers is essential to the nutrient cycle of local aquatic ecosystems and is crucial for fisheries. This is likely to be adversely affected by dams. As Boruah and Biswas point out, this will affect the 'auto-stocking' of wetlands by riverine species. The profuse pre-monsoon growth of aquatic weeds will also not be 'flushed out' by the floodwaters.
Poorly-planned projects in the northeast such as Loktak and Gumti have had long-term negative impacts. Bhaumik makes a strong case for the decomissioning of the Gumti dam and returning the land to the tribals, which he feels is a crucial step towards the resolution of the tribal–non-tribal conflict in Tripura. Wangkheirakpam describes in detail the socio-economic impacts of the Loktak project on the people living off and around the lake. The Kaptai dam, built in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) submerged the traditional homelands of the Hajong and Chakma communities, forcing them to migrate into northeast India, leading to conflicts between the refugees and local communities. The impending loss of homes, lands and livelihoods has led to resistance to the Pagladiya project in Assam by the Bodos and by the Hmars and Nagas to the Tipaimukh project in Manipur.
India's experience in Resettlement and Rehabilitation (R&R) of project-affected people is abysmal to say the least. Planning Commission estimates suggest that 21.3 million people were displaced by development projects between 1951 and 1990 alone. Other researchers suggest that this is a gross underestimation and the actual figure could be well over 40 million. Of the 21.3 million, 8.54 million (40%) belonged to Scheduled Tribes, which constitute only 8% of India's total population. Only 2.1 million (25%) are reported to have been rehabilitated; the rest were left to fend for themselves.(8) Despite this, India does not yet have a national R&R policy and law! There exists a detailed law and procedure for land acquisition by the state, the Land Acquisition Act, 1894. This Act has provisions for monetary compensation but R&R is not a part of it. Much of R&R today is in the realm of administrative discretion, directions and draft policies. Unless strengthened by specific provisions of law and policy guidelines, these do not acquire the force of law. Since the mid-1980s, several drafts of a national R&R policy have been doing the rounds but it still awaits finalisation. While some state governments have R&R policies and laws, this is not the case in the northeast. Therefore, we cannot share the optimism expressed by Kant in his article on the clearance procedures, regarding official provisions on rehabilitation and their implementation. There might be stray cases where rehabilitation may have been done sensitively, but since the basic framework itself is missing, such cases are fortunate exceptions. While the direct displacement of communities upstream of existing and proposed dams in the northeast may be small in numerical terms as compared to other parts of the country, downstream impacts are likely to be substantial. Other than a mention of downstream impacts in relation to dam-break disasters, there has been little acknowledgement in project reports and official circles of the loss of livelihoods due to dam construction.
For example, the Ranganadi stage-I project in Arunachal Pradesh, commissioned in 2002, seeks to divert water from the Ranganadi river by a dam and tunnel to a powerhouse on the Dikrong river. This is likely to have considerable social consequences, including livelihood impacts, due to reduced flow in the Ranganadi and increased flow in the Dikrong. The project's EIA did not address downstream impacts, which were evident in the construction phase itself, with heavy sedimentation downstream, the silt deposits being as much as 15 to 45 cm. in the riverbed. The sediments had been contributed by construction work on the project and attendant infrastructure. As a result, the river started to show abnormal behaviour in its flow and tended to change its course at several places in the plains. The impact of sedimentation was visible almost 100 km. downstream of the dam in the form of a decrease in fish population, which has affected the fishing community (Darlong, V. in Sundariyal et al, 1998).
The article by Vagholikar and Ahmed also raises concerns about the downstream impacts likely on the Subansiri river with the construction of projects on it. The effects on the natural regulation of water in the beels, which are important for traditional fisheries and deep-water rice cultivation, have found no mention in the EIA report.
It is more than livelihoods when it comes to Rounglevaisuo, the confluence of the Tuiruong and Tuivai rivers in Manipur, held sacred by the Hmar and other indigenous peoples. While the threat of cultural loss still looms large here in the form of the Tipaimukh dam, a project which was to come up in the sacred valley of Rathong chu in Sikkim was successfully stalled "to honour the sentiments, religion and culture of the people of Sikkim."
Many of the project documents emphasise that parts of the submergence are in any case 'degraded', as local communities practice jhumming (shifting cultivation) on these lands. In the northeast, shifting cultivation is a major traditional land-use and plays a critical role in the livelihoods of people and in maintaining agro-bioDIVersity. The shortening of jhum cycles (the length of the fallow period between two cropping phases) due to a variety of reasons has raised concerns regarding the ecological viability of this farming system, but farmers have rejected the option of sedentary farming as a long-term solution on both ecological and socio-cultural grounds (Ramakrishnan, 2002). There is an increasing acceptance that jhum will continue to form an important part of the agricultural systems of the northeast and it is crucial to work at re-establishing sustainability in the system (amongst other things through appropriate fallow management inputs and integrated land-use management). In this light, decisions regarding the use of jhum lands for developmental projects should be given very careful consideration.
In the Lower Subansiri project, it is proposed to give the project affected families a total of one hectare each, amounting to a total of 38 ha. as compensation for 960 ha. of agricultural land (jhum and rice cultivation) that they are losing. There will also be monetary compensation. This is despite all the families surveyed having asked for 'land for land' to sustain their agricultural livelihoods, while only 23.7% and 21.1% also opted for vocational training and other employment respectively.(9) It is important to note that besides using jhum lands for agriculture, forest fallows are also important for medicinal plants, wild foods and other forest produce. All this would not be available once they are displaced. This assumes considerable significance while evaluating the social impacts of dams in the northeast where both the extent of community-managed commons and the livelihood dependence of communities on these areas is considerable.
In India, the movements against the Narmada, Tehri, Silent Valley and Koel Karo projects have brought to light the social and ecological costs of large dams. Although these and other lesser-known movements have addressed the tribulations of local communities and ecological losses, they have also raised pertinent questions about the technical viability, economic feasibility and the long-term sustainability of such projects. While there are visible movements in the northeast to protest against the impacts of large dams such as Pagladiya and Tipaimukh, there are also smaller efforts by individuals and groups to raise their concerns and fears about the impacts of dams, as in the case of the Lower Subansiri project. Singh in his article on the impacts of large dams in India says, "…there is no process by which the equity impacts of dams are assessed. This absence, in itself, highlights the low priority that equity issues are given by the government, as far as dams go." He further states: "If the cost of preventing and mitigating those environmental impacts that can be prevented or mitigated, along with the cost of what cannot be prevented or mitigated, are internalised, perhaps very few of the dams made or under construction would still be economically viable."
Picture: Ashish Kothari
We do have provisions such as the Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, 1994, which are mandatory for large hydel projects and form a "valuable tool and process that can assist in incorporating environmental concerns in the planning, implementation and maintenance stages of any developmental activity". (Darlong, V., 1998). But the actual quality of EIA reports, which form the basis of environmental decision-making, remains shoddy, to put it mildly. In this issue, the EIA reports of some recent projects such as Teesta, Kameng and Lower Subansiri have been severely criticised for their glaring lacunae and grossly inaccurate data. What is more unfortunate is that some of these projects have been granted environmental clearance on the basis of such reports. For people's groups and concerned citizens, obtaining information and project-related documents from project proponents has been a matter of luck. Even today, citizens are denied access to information about projects proposed to come up in their areas. Information sharing has so far mostly been through "unofficial" means.
Ashish Kothari, former member of the Expert Committee for river valley projects appointed by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), recalls that his committee's recommendations for improving the environmental clearance process for dam projects had laid emphasis on greater public (especially local community) involvement in the process through compulsory public hearings, mandatory disclosure of all information in local languages, the search for alternatives to each project, monitoring of conditions, etc., but laments that most remain unimplemented. The June 13, 2002, amendment to the EIA notification now makes the EIA report a public document. It is imperative that concerned inDIViduals and groups access this and other project documents(10) and review them critically. The environmental public hearing process, a mandatory part of the environmental clearance procedure, offers an important space for people's participation in decision-making. Despite the procedural problems in most public hearings, including those for the Lower Subansiri, Kameng and the Teesta Low Dam III projects described in this issue, this provision remains a valuable tool and needs to be used to the fullest.
While access to information and participation in decision-making is crucial, there is also a need for more fundamental changes in the planning process. Prayas Energy Group argues for the need for Integrated Resource Planning (IRP). This entails integrated planning for all inputs necessary for livelihood security – water, land, energy and biomass. IRP also ensures that all available options are included in the planning exercise and ranked in order of their costs. "Adoption of techniques and tools such as IRP will halt the undue emphasis on long-gestation, centralised, bulky and high-cost projects such as large hydel power projects… We feel that though hydro would continue to play a significant role in the power sector, new large dams seem to have serious limitations. If options suggested by rational, integrated planning are opted for, the role of hydro options other than large hydro projects will be substantially more significant than today," opines Prayas.
In December 2002, the central government set up a task force to interlink rivers, reviving a plan already questioned on account of its economic, technical, political, environmental and social viability. In 1980, the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) had prepared a National Perspective Plan (NPP) for optimum development of water resources envisaging inter-basin water transfers from surplus to deficit areas. The proposed benefits include flood and drought mitigation, increased irrigation, hydro power development, etc. To give practical shape to the linkage proposals, the National Water Development Agency (NWDA) was established in July 1982 to carry out technical studies. The plans for Himlayan river development involve the construction of reservoirs on the principal tributaries of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra in India, Nepal and Bhutan. It also proposes linking canal systems to transfer surplus flows of the eastern tributaries of the Ganga to the west. The linking of the main Brahmaputra and its tributaries with the Ganga and the latter with the Mahanadi was also being mooted. (MoWR 2002).
Environmentalists and hydrologists have cautioned against the hasty adoption of this scheme. Ramaswamy Iyer, former Secretary, Ministry of Water Resources, says "Every inter-basin transfer must necessarily involve the carrying of water across the natural barrier between basins by lifting, or by tunnelling through, or by a long circuitous routing around the mountains, if such a possibility exists". Lifting such large volumes of water over intervening mountain ranges would require enormous amounts of energy. Rather than wasting scarce resources on such grandiose, impractical schemes, we should focus on more worthwhile and urgent activities, such as extensive water-harvesting all over the country (wherever feasible) and the massive task of rehabilitation of tanks in the south and other similar traditional water conservation systems elsewhere (Iyer, 2002).
Picture: Vijendra Patil
Iyer goes on to warn: "We must disabuse ourselves of the notion that the vast waters of the Brahmaputra can be diverted westward or southward. At best we can think in terms of some minor transfers within the eastern region." Dulal Goswami, expert on the Brahmaputra river system, has said that a detailed study encompassing various aspects including social, economic and environmental issues need to be done before pursuing plans to link the Brahmaputra with other river basins.
Besides the issues highlighted above, a fundamental challenge in the case of Himalayan rivers will be in identifying what is really 'water surplus' in the light of increasing glacial recession and the likelihood of reduced flows in future. Glaciologists wonder if the project will ever meet its intended objective of reducing water scarcity across the country. "There is no scientific database on climate and discharge patterns in the Himalayas feeding the major rivers and the government should not be euphoric without involving glaciologists and other experts before putting the multi-crore mega project into operation," said Dr. Syed Iqbal Hasnain, Professor at the School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University. "Without a long-term database involving glaciologists from within the country and abroad to conduct a detailed study to check climate signals and monitor temporal and spatial variations, the project as presently proposed will prove a disaster, economically and environmentally," warned Mr. Hasnain.(11)
The World Commission on Dams (WCD)(12) was established by the World Bank and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature in May 1998 in response to the large dam debate. Its mandate was to review the development effectiveness of large dams, assess alternatives for water resources and energy planning and develop internationally acceptable guidelines and standards for the planning, design, appraisal, construction, operation, monitoring and decommissioning of dams. The first independent assessment of dams, the report concluded that "while dams have made an important contribution to human development and benefits derived from them have been considerable, in too many cases an unacceptable and often unnecessary price has been paid to secure those benefits, especially in social and environmental terms, by people displaced, by communities downstream, by taxpayers and the natural environment."
The WCD report stated that the economic benefits from big dams are grossly inequitable, excluding poorer sections, mainly tribal communities and women, from a share in these benefits. The last quarter of the 20th century saw a gradual shift in opinion with reference to large dams. Globally, the construction of new dams has fallen by 60% since the 1970s. Additionally, dams which are not serving their purpose or are too expensive to maintain are being decommissioned and there is an increasing momentum towards river restoration. Even the argument that hydro power is a clean energy option has been dispelled as reservoirs have been found to emit greenhouse gases.
Despite the MoWR rejecting the WCD report, the study merits careful attention. While one may disagree with aspects of the report, the approach to decision-making that it proposes will strike a chord with all who believe in ecological and social justice. The WCD proposes a new way forward based on a 'rights and risk' approach. This approach to decision-making is based on recognising the rights of, and assessing the risks to, all stakeholders. This means that all stakeholders whose rights might be affected and all stakeholders who have risks imposed upon them involuntarily, should be included in the decision-making process. The WCD developed seven strategic priorities for this new approach to development.
Two regional consultations on 'Dams and Development' were held in the northeast and neighbouring areas recently. One was organised by the Citizens' Concern for Dams and Development (CCDD), Manipur, in July 2001 at Mawlein, Meghalaya and the other by NESPON in April 2002 at Siliguri, North Bengal, in collaboration with South Asia Network on Dams, Rivers and People (SANDRP). Most of the participants in these consultations were of the view that decisions regarding future dam projects in the region must be preceded by answers to pertinent questions such as: Have the development needs and objectives been formulated through an open and participatory process at local and regional levels? Has a comprehensive options assessment for water and energy resource development been done? Have the social and environmental factors been given the same significance as techno-economic aspects in assessing options? Do we have a basin-wide understanding of the ecology of the rivers and the dependence of local communities on them?
At least two-dozen large dams in the northeast are at an advanced stage of planning or clearance. The above questions need to be asked and answers found without compromising on detail. Ushering in these projects without adequately addressing these fundamental concerns cannot justifiably be a way out of the northeast's development dilemmas. Decisions taken at this stage will determine how bright the future of the northeast – its people and its environment – will really be.
Manju Menon (manjumenon@vsnl.net), Neeraj Vagholikar (nvagho@vsnl.net) and Kanchi Kohli (kanchik@vsnl.com) are members of Kalpavriksh, an environment action group and guest editors of this special issue. Ashish Fernandes is Assistant Editor of The Ecologist Asia.
Endnotes
- These include hydropotential of the scheme, type of scheme (viz. storage type, height of the dam, length of head-race tunnel or channel), R&R aspects, international and inter-state aspects, accessibility to site, status of upstream or downstream development and status of the project. Ecological and geological aspects, which are crucial in the fragile northeast do not feature in the preliminary ranking study, which has given the highest marks to the Brahmaputra river system. As per the CEA report, after additional inputs (such as environmental impact assessment, seismicity, etc.), the "ranking of schemes as established in this study may undergo minor changes at the time of final detailed studies."
- Out of 226 schemes, 168 schemes each above 25 MW were considered for the ranking study.
- 26,201.4 MW at 60% load factor.
- In June 2002, former Union Minister of Power, Suresh Prabhu announced in Guwahati that 914 micro and mini hydel projects had been identified for the northeastern states ( '914 micro hydels to light N-E', Indian Express, June 5, 2002). This figure does not include Sikkim. There are slight variations in the data available with various sources.
- This issue has largely focussed on hydro power projects as they constitute the majority of dams being proposed for northeast India. Hydro power generation is also a large component of multipurpose projects proposed for the region.
- Sikkim is a recent addition to what is referred to as the northeast – the other seven states. Since we have used the Brahmaputra river system as the reference point, this issue contains an article on the Teesta sub-basin, which extends over Sikkim and northern portions of West Bengal. The historical perspectives on the northeast in this piece may not be relevant to Sikkim and North Bengal.
- Under the EIA Notification, 1994, it is mandatory for dam projects costing over 100 crores to undergo site and environmental clearance from the Ministry of Environment and Forests. The preparation of the EIA report is an important part of this process.
- Address given by Dilip Singh Bhuria, Chairman, National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, at the National Meeting on Community Forestry Issues organised by the World Bank, Manesar, Haryana, November 8-9, 2001.
- Rehabilitation and resettlement measures' in the section on socio-economic aspects in the EIA and EMP report for Lower Subansiri project prepared by Water and Power Consultancy Services (WAPCOS), Gurgaon, Haryana.
- For large power projects it is necessary under section 29 of the Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948 to publish in the Official Gazette of the state concerned and in local newspapers, information about the project and give a minimum of two months to people to make representations. If the Detailed Project Report is not made available during this period, it should be demanded, since making representations on the scheme requires access to sufficient information on the project. This notice is usually published before submitting the scheme to the Central Electricity Authority for its concurrence.
- Deccan Herald, December 7, 2002.
- www.dams.org
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- Dixit, Kunda and Ahmed, Inam, Managing the Himalayan Watershed: A flood of questions, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXXIII No. 44, October 31, 1998.
- Glaciers Beating Retreat, Down to Earth, Vol. 7, No. 23, April 30, 1999.
- Fernandes, Walter and Paranjpye, Vijay (eds.), 1997, Rehabilitation Policy and Law in India: A Right to Livelihood, Indian Social Institute, New Delhi.
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- Hasnain 1996. Himalayan Glaciers: A Sustainable Water Resource, ENVIS Newsletter Vol. 2. No.3, November 1996, ENVIS Centre, Jawaharlal Nehru University.
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- Mountain Development Profile No. 2, September 2000, Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods, ICIMOD.
- Annual Report 2001-2002, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India.
- Myers, N., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., da Fonseca, G.A.B. and Kent, J. 2000, BioDIVersity hotspots for conservation priorities, Nature, 403, pp. 853-858.
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